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Effects of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers
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Korean J Adult Nurs : Korean Journal of Adult Nursing

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Original Research

Effects of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers

Hye-Young Choi1, Sook-Ja Yang2
Korean Journal of Adult Nursing 2013;25(6):712-724.
Published online: December 18, 2013

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Corresponding author: Yang, Sook-Ja Division of Nursing Science, Ewha Womans University, 11-1 Daehyun-dong, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 120-750, Korea. Tel: +82-2-3277-4652, Fax: +82-2-3277-2850, E-mail: yangsj@ewha.ac.kr
• Received: August 12, 2013   • Accepted: December 10, 2013

© 2013 Korean Society of Adult Nursing

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/) which permits unrestricted non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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  • Purpose
    The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a walking program for office workers in terms of social cognitive theory, walking activities and physiological indexes.
  • Methods
    A nonequivalent control group pretest-posttest design was used. The sample consisted of 50 office workers who were identified as having low levels of physical activity according to the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ Research Committee, 2005). The participants were recruited from two companies in Seoul. Of the 50 participants, 26 were assigned to the nonequivalent experimental group and 24 to the control group. The walking program consisted of six didactic sessions via e-mail, two individual telecoaching sessions and three support group meetings over ten weeks. Data were analyzed using SPSS 17.0 program.
  • Results
    The non-equivalent experimental group reported significantly higher posttest scores in walking activities and adhering to the walking protocol than the control group. There were no differences in reported self-efficacy, outcome expectations, body mass index and blood pressure between the two groups.
  • Conclusion
    These findings indicate that a walking program based on social cognitive theory is effective in increasing physical activities for office workers.
  • Key Words: Walking; Physical activity; Worker; Social cognitive theory
Table 1.
Construction of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers
Time Sessions Delivery Intervening variable Evaluation methods
1st week ·Moving forward with walking activity ·Support group meetings ·Outcome expectations . Process evaluation
      - The effect of walking       - Weekly task report
2nd week ·General guidance for walking activity ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
      - Walking time, frequency intensity, and posture       - Goal setting       - Weekly task report
      - Self monitoring
3rd week ·Improving daily walking activity ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
      - Strategy for daily walking activity ·Delivery via e-mail       - Planning       - Weekly task report
·Customized walking guidance ·Individual telecoaching
4th week ·Dealing with high-risk situations ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-efficacy . Process evaluation
      - Exercise barriers and coping strategy       - Improving physical and emotional status       - Weekly task report
5th week ·Getting social support ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
      - Communication strategy depending on the situation       - Enlistment of social support       - Weekly task report
6th week ·Posttest (Primary) ·Questionnaire & body measurement ·Self-efficacy . Process evaluation
·Sharing personal experience ·Support group meetings       - Vicarious experience       - Participation in posttest (primary)
      - Mastery experience
7th week ·Managing positive inner dialogue ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
      - Strategy for positive self-talk       - Self-instruction       - Weekly task report
8th week ·Individual interim performance analysis ·Delivery via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
      - Coaching based on interim performance ·Individual telecoaching       - Self-reward       - Moderate intensity steps count
      - Walking activity score
      - Physiological index
9th week ·Rebuilding personal practice for lasting walking activity ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
      - Replanning based on performance checklist       - Feedback       - Weekly task report
      - Goal setting
10th week ·Post-test (Secondary) ·Questionnaire & body measurement ·Self-efficacy . Process evaluation
·Sharing personal experience ·Support group meeting       - Vicarious experience       - Participation in post-test (Secondary)
·Individual final performance analysis ·Delivery via e-mail       - Mastery experience . Outcome evaluation
      - Moderate intensity steps count
      - Walking activity score
      - Physiological index
Table 2.
Homogeneity Test of Sociodemographic Characteristics and Study Variables between Experimental and Control Group (N=50)
Characteristics Categories Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) x2 or U p
n (%) or M±SD n (%) or M±SD
Gender Male 8 (30.8) 4 (16.7) 1.36 .243
Female 18 (69.2) 20 (83.3)    
Age (year)   37.2±9.8 38.1±8.4 273.50 .454
＜40 19 (73.1) 16 (66.7) 0.24 .621
≥40 7 (26.9) 8 (33.3)    
Education level† Middle and high school 1 (3.8) 3 (12.5)   .340
College 25 (96.2) 21 (87.5)    
Transportation time (min)   76.40±53.06 79.38±74.31 271.50 .564
Type of transportation† Public or walking 23 (88.5) 21 (87.5)   1.000
Owner-driven car 3 (11.5) 3 (12.5)    
Alcohol drinker Yes 19 (73.1) 14 (58.3) 1.21 .272
No 7 (26.9) 10 (41.7)    
Smoker† Yes 4 (15.4) 1 (4.2)   .351
No 22 (84.6) 23 (95.8)    
Eating pattern Yes 16 (61.5) 12 (50.0) 0.67 .412
with high calorie No 10 (38.5) 12 (50.0)    
Morbidity†‡ Yes 5 (19.2) 4 (16.7)   1.000
No 21 (80.8) 20 (83.3)    
Social cognitive Self-efficacy (score) 40.04±18.29 40.91±13.10 287.50 .634
variables Outcome expectations (score) 3.89±0.59 4.18±0.47 217.50 .066
Working activity Walking activity score (MET-min) 294.46±210.88 277.75±218.34 288.50 .647
Moderate-intensity steps§(steps) 4,527.96±2,046.74 4,880.05±1,972.23 240.50 .462
Physiological indexes Body mass index (kg/m2) 23.2±3.5 23.6±3.6 287.00 .627
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 117.40±15.71 116.67±10.72 306.50 .915
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 81.98±11.33 80.98±10.72 305.00 .892

Exp.=experimental group; Cont.=control group.

†Fisher's exact test;

‡Those who have been diagnosed at least one disease among hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, gastrointestinal diseases;

§The measurement outcomes about moderate-intensity steps during first week after starting intervention (Exp. n=25, Cont. n=22).

Table 3.
Differences in Social Cognitive Variables, Walking Activity and Physiological Indexes within Groups and between Groups (N=50)
Study variables Pretest at 6th week at 10th week Within groups Between groups
Pretest vs. 6th week Pretest vs. 10th week at 6th week at 10th week
Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24)
n (%) or M±SD n (%) or M±SD n (%) or M±SD Z (p) Z (p) x2 or U (p) x2 or U (p)
Self-efficacy (score) 40.04 40.90 45.41 46.69 50.37 46.18 -1.55 -1.59 -2.26 -1.02 305.00 255.50
(18.29) (13.10) (18.29) (15.64) (20.34) (17.04) (.121) (.113) (.024) (.310) (.892) (.272)
Outcome expectations (score) 3.89 4.18 3.89 4.08 4.06 4.17 -0.45 -0.73 -1.65 -0.02 237.50 272.50
(0.59) (0.47) (0.45) (0.51) (0.49) (0.55) (.650) (.467) (.099) (.983) (.146) (.441)
Walking activity scores (MET-min) 294.46 277.75 872.60 503.25 707.60 489.50 -3.63 -2.86 -3.11 -2.54 206.50 251.50
(210.88) (218.34) (803.01) (401.14) (571.39) (347.84) (＜.001) ) (.004) (.002) (.011) (.040) (.239)
The number of participants following walking protocol (persons) 0 0 17 7 16 8 –† –† –† –† 6.56 3.98
(0.0) (0.0) (65.4) (29.2) (61.5) (33.3) ―† ―† ―† ―† (.010) (.046)
Body mass index (kg/m2) 23.2 23.6 23.1 23.6 23.1 23.8 -1.63 -0.26 -1.50 -1.88 287.50 274.00
(3.5) (3.6) (3.6) (3.6) (3.6) (3.50) (.104) (.793) (.134) (.060) (.634) (.460)
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 117.40 116.67 115.52 115.56 116.58 116.02 -1.14 -0.77 -0.47 -0.31 307.50 301.50
(15.71) (10.82) (13.03) (11.11) (15.72) (12.94) (.252) (.442) (.637) (.708) (.930) (.838)
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 81.98 80.98 78.35 82.00 82.50 79.35 -2.52 -0.55 -0.19 -0.62 269.50 266.50
(11.33) (10.72) (9.21) (10.46) (12.86) (10.13) (.012) (.580) (.852) (.537) (.408) (.375)
  at 1st week at 6th week at 10th week 1st week vs. 6th week 1st week vs. 10th week at 6th week at 10th week
Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont.
(n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17)
Moderate-intensity steps‡ (steps) 4,484.79 5,365.82 4,729.25 4,613.59 5,040.49 3,583.24 -0.40 -2.30 -0.03 -3.48 199.00 136.00
(2,079.11) (1,684.46) (2,211.88) (1,815.84) (2,861.09) (1,644.44) (.689) (.022) (.977) (.001) (.895) (.072)

†The statistical analysis within groups could not be performed because the number of participants following walking protocol was'0' in pretest; ‡Included only those who had completed all three measurements of moderate-intensity steps at 1st week, 6th week and 10th week.

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      Effects of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers
      Korean J Adult Nurs. 2013;25(6):712-724.   Published online December 31, 2013
      DOI: https://doi.org/10.7475/kjan.2013.25.6.712
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      Effects of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers
      Korean J Adult Nurs. 2013;25(6):712-724.   Published online December 31, 2013
      DOI: https://doi.org/10.7475/kjan.2013.25.6.712
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      Effects of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers
      Effects of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers

      Construction of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers

      Time Sessions Delivery Intervening variable Evaluation methods
      1st week ·Moving forward with walking activity ·Support group meetings ·Outcome expectations . Process evaluation
            - The effect of walking       - Weekly task report
      2nd week ·General guidance for walking activity ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
            - Walking time, frequency intensity, and posture       - Goal setting       - Weekly task report
            - Self monitoring
      3rd week ·Improving daily walking activity ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
            - Strategy for daily walking activity ·Delivery via e-mail       - Planning       - Weekly task report
      ·Customized walking guidance ·Individual telecoaching
      4th week ·Dealing with high-risk situations ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-efficacy . Process evaluation
            - Exercise barriers and coping strategy       - Improving physical and emotional status       - Weekly task report
      5th week ·Getting social support ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
            - Communication strategy depending on the situation       - Enlistment of social support       - Weekly task report
      6th week ·Posttest (Primary) ·Questionnaire & body measurement ·Self-efficacy . Process evaluation
      ·Sharing personal experience ·Support group meetings       - Vicarious experience       - Participation in posttest (primary)
            - Mastery experience
      7th week ·Managing positive inner dialogue ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
            - Strategy for positive self-talk       - Self-instruction       - Weekly task report
      8th week ·Individual interim performance analysis ·Delivery via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
            - Coaching based on interim performance ·Individual telecoaching       - Self-reward       - Moderate intensity steps count
            - Walking activity score
            - Physiological index
      9th week ·Rebuilding personal practice for lasting walking activity ·Learning via e-mail ·Self-regulation . Process evaluation
            - Replanning based on performance checklist       - Feedback       - Weekly task report
            - Goal setting
      10th week ·Post-test (Secondary) ·Questionnaire & body measurement ·Self-efficacy . Process evaluation
      ·Sharing personal experience ·Support group meeting       - Vicarious experience       - Participation in post-test (Secondary)
      ·Individual final performance analysis ·Delivery via e-mail       - Mastery experience . Outcome evaluation
            - Moderate intensity steps count
            - Walking activity score
            - Physiological index

      Homogeneity Test of Sociodemographic Characteristics and Study Variables between Experimental and Control Group (N=50)

      Characteristics Categories Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) x2 or U p
      n (%) or M±SD n (%) or M±SD
      Gender Male 8 (30.8) 4 (16.7) 1.36 .243
      Female 18 (69.2) 20 (83.3)    
      Age (year)   37.2±9.8 38.1±8.4 273.50 .454
      ＜40 19 (73.1) 16 (66.7) 0.24 .621
      ≥40 7 (26.9) 8 (33.3)    
      Education level† Middle and high school 1 (3.8) 3 (12.5)   .340
      College 25 (96.2) 21 (87.5)    
      Transportation time (min)   76.40±53.06 79.38±74.31 271.50 .564
      Type of transportation† Public or walking 23 (88.5) 21 (87.5)   1.000
      Owner-driven car 3 (11.5) 3 (12.5)    
      Alcohol drinker Yes 19 (73.1) 14 (58.3) 1.21 .272
      No 7 (26.9) 10 (41.7)    
      Smoker† Yes 4 (15.4) 1 (4.2)   .351
      No 22 (84.6) 23 (95.8)    
      Eating pattern Yes 16 (61.5) 12 (50.0) 0.67 .412
      with high calorie No 10 (38.5) 12 (50.0)    
      Morbidity†‡ Yes 5 (19.2) 4 (16.7)   1.000
      No 21 (80.8) 20 (83.3)    
      Social cognitive Self-efficacy (score) 40.04±18.29 40.91±13.10 287.50 .634
      variables Outcome expectations (score) 3.89±0.59 4.18±0.47 217.50 .066
      Working activity Walking activity score (MET-min) 294.46±210.88 277.75±218.34 288.50 .647
      Moderate-intensity steps§(steps) 4,527.96±2,046.74 4,880.05±1,972.23 240.50 .462
      Physiological indexes Body mass index (kg/m2) 23.2±3.5 23.6±3.6 287.00 .627
      Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 117.40±15.71 116.67±10.72 306.50 .915
      Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 81.98±11.33 80.98±10.72 305.00 .892

      Exp.=experimental group; Cont.=control group.

      †Fisher's exact test;

      ‡Those who have been diagnosed at least one disease among hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, gastrointestinal diseases;

      §The measurement outcomes about moderate-intensity steps during first week after starting intervention (Exp. n=25, Cont. n=22).

      Differences in Social Cognitive Variables, Walking Activity and Physiological Indexes within Groups and between Groups (N=50)

      Study variables Pretest at 6th week at 10th week Within groups Between groups
      Pretest vs. 6th week Pretest vs. 10th week at 6th week at 10th week
      Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24) Exp. (n=26) Cont. (n=24)
      n (%) or M±SD n (%) or M±SD n (%) or M±SD Z (p) Z (p) x2 or U (p) x2 or U (p)
      Self-efficacy (score) 40.04 40.90 45.41 46.69 50.37 46.18 -1.55 -1.59 -2.26 -1.02 305.00 255.50
      (18.29) (13.10) (18.29) (15.64) (20.34) (17.04) (.121) (.113) (.024) (.310) (.892) (.272)
      Outcome expectations (score) 3.89 4.18 3.89 4.08 4.06 4.17 -0.45 -0.73 -1.65 -0.02 237.50 272.50
      (0.59) (0.47) (0.45) (0.51) (0.49) (0.55) (.650) (.467) (.099) (.983) (.146) (.441)
      Walking activity scores (MET-min) 294.46 277.75 872.60 503.25 707.60 489.50 -3.63 -2.86 -3.11 -2.54 206.50 251.50
      (210.88) (218.34) (803.01) (401.14) (571.39) (347.84) (＜.001) ) (.004) (.002) (.011) (.040) (.239)
      The number of participants following walking protocol (persons) 0 0 17 7 16 8 –† –† –† –† 6.56 3.98
      (0.0) (0.0) (65.4) (29.2) (61.5) (33.3) ―† ―† ―† ―† (.010) (.046)
      Body mass index (kg/m2) 23.2 23.6 23.1 23.6 23.1 23.8 -1.63 -0.26 -1.50 -1.88 287.50 274.00
      (3.5) (3.6) (3.6) (3.6) (3.6) (3.50) (.104) (.793) (.134) (.060) (.634) (.460)
      Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 117.40 116.67 115.52 115.56 116.58 116.02 -1.14 -0.77 -0.47 -0.31 307.50 301.50
      (15.71) (10.82) (13.03) (11.11) (15.72) (12.94) (.252) (.442) (.637) (.708) (.930) (.838)
      Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 81.98 80.98 78.35 82.00 82.50 79.35 -2.52 -0.55 -0.19 -0.62 269.50 266.50
      (11.33) (10.72) (9.21) (10.46) (12.86) (10.13) (.012) (.580) (.852) (.537) (.408) (.375)
        at 1st week at 6th week at 10th week 1st week vs. 6th week 1st week vs. 10th week at 6th week at 10th week
      Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont. Exp. Cont.
      (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17) (n=24) (n=17)
      Moderate-intensity steps‡ (steps) 4,484.79 5,365.82 4,729.25 4,613.59 5,040.49 3,583.24 -0.40 -2.30 -0.03 -3.48 199.00 136.00
      (2,079.11) (1,684.46) (2,211.88) (1,815.84) (2,861.09) (1,644.44) (.689) (.022) (.977) (.001) (.895) (.072)

      †The statistical analysis within groups could not be performed because the number of participants following walking protocol was'0' in pretest; ‡Included only those who had completed all three measurements of moderate-intensity steps at 1st week, 6th week and 10th week.
      Table 1. Construction of Walking Program based on Social Cognitive Theory for Office Workers

      Table 2. Homogeneity Test of Sociodemographic Characteristics and Study Variables between Experimental and Control Group (N=50)

      Exp.=experimental group; Cont.=control group.

      Fisher's exact test;

      Those who have been diagnosed at least one disease among hypertension, diabetes, arthritis, gastrointestinal diseases;

      The measurement outcomes about moderate-intensity steps during first week after starting intervention (Exp. n=25, Cont. n=22).

      Table 3. Differences in Social Cognitive Variables, Walking Activity and Physiological Indexes within Groups and between Groups (N=50)

      †The statistical analysis within groups could not be performed because the number of participants following walking protocol was'0' in pretest; ‡Included only those who had completed all three measurements of moderate-intensity steps at 1st week, 6th week and 10th week.

      Table 1.

      Table 2.

      Table 3.

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